This chapter describes two program generators: ocamllex, that produces a lexical analyzer from a set of regular expressions with associated semantic actions, and ocamlyacc, that produces a parser from a grammar with associated semantic actions.
These program generators are very close to the well-known lex and yacc commands that can be found in most C programming environments. This chapter assumes a working knowledge of lex and yacc: while it describes the input syntax for ocamllex and ocamlyacc and the main differences with lex and yacc, it does not explain the basics of writing a lexer or parser description in lex and yacc. Readers unfamiliar with lex and yacc are referred to ``Compilers: principles, techniques, and tools'' by Aho, Sethi and Ullman (Addison-Wesley, 1986), or ``Lex & Yacc'', by Levine, Mason and Brown (O'Reilly, 1992).
The ocamllex command produces a lexical analyzer from a set of regular expressions with attached semantic actions, in the style of lex. Assuming the input file is lexer.mll, executing
ocamllex lexer.mllproduces Caml code for a lexical analyzer in file lexer.ml. This file defines one lexing function per entry point in the lexer definition. These functions have the same names as the entry points. Lexing functions take as argument a lexer buffer, and return the semantic attribute of the corresponding entry point.
Lexer buffers are an abstract data type implemented in the standard library module Lexing. The functions Lexing.from_channel, Lexing.from_string and Lexing.from_function create lexer buffers that read from an input channel, a character string, or any reading function, respectively. (See the description of module Lexing in chapter 16.)
When used in conjunction with a parser generated by ocamlyacc, the semantic actions compute a value belonging to the type token defined by the generated parsing module. (See the description of ocamlyacc below.)
The format of lexer definitions is as follows:
{ header } rule entrypoint = parse regexp { action } | ... | regexp { action } and entrypoint = parse ... and ... { trailer }
Comments are delimited by (* and *), as in Caml.
The names of the entry points must be valid value identifiers.
The regular expressions are in the style of lex, with a more Caml-like syntax.
'
char '
"
string "
[
character-set ]
'
c '
; ranges of characters
'
c1 '
-
'
c2 '
(all characters between c_1 and c_2,
inclusive); and the union of two or more character sets, denoted by
concatenation.
[
^
character-set ]
*
+
?
|
regexp2
(
regexp )
Concerning the precedences of operators, * and + have highest precedence, followed by ?, then concatenation, then | (alternation).
The actions are arbitrary Caml expressions. They are evaluated in a context where the identifier lexbuf is bound to the current lexer buffer. Some typical uses for lexbuf, in conjunction with the operations on lexer buffers provided by the Lexing standard library module, are listed below.
The ocamlyacc command produces a parser from a context-free grammar specification with attached semantic actions, in the style of yacc. Assuming the input file is grammar.mly, executing
ocamlyacc options grammar.mlyproduces Caml code for a parser in the file grammar.ml, and its interface in file grammar.mli.
The generated module defines one parsing function per entry point in the grammar. These functions have the same names as the entry points. Parsing functions take as arguments a lexical analyzer (a function from lexer buffers to tokens) and a lexer buffer, and return the semantic attribute of the corresponding entry point. Lexical analyzer functions are usually generated from a lexer specification by the ocamllex program. Lexer buffers are an abstract data type implemented in the standard library module Lexing. Tokens are values from the concrete type token, defined in the interface file grammar.mli produced by ocamlyacc.
Grammar definitions have the following format:
%{ header %} declarations %% rules %% trailer
Comments are enclosed between /* and */ (as in C) in the ``declarations'' and ``rules'' sections, and between (* and *) (as in Caml) in the ``header'' and ``trailer'' sections.
The header and the trailer sections are Caml code that is copied as is into file grammar.ml. Both sections are optional. The header goes at the beginning of the output file; it usually contains open directives and auxiliary functions required by the semantic actions of the rules. The trailer goes at the end of the output file.
Declarations are given one per line. They all start with a % sign.
%token
symbol...symbol
%token
<
type >
symbol...symbol
%start
symbol...symbol
%type
<
type >
symbol...symbol
%left
symbol...symbol%right
symbol...symbol%nonassoc
symbol...symbolAssociate precedences and associativities to the given symbols. All symbols on the same line are given the same precedence. They have higher precedence than symbols declared before in a %left, %right or %nonassoc line. They have lower precedence than symbols declared after in a %left, %right or %nonassoc line. The symbols are declared to associate to the left (%left), to the right (%right), or to be non-associative (%nonassoc). The symbols are usually tokens. They can also be dummy nonterminals, for use with the %prec directive inside the rules.
The syntax for rules is as usual:
nonterminal : symbol ... symbol { semantic-action } | ... | symbol ... symbol { semantic-action } ;Rules can also contain the %prec symbol directive in the right-hand side part, to override the default precedence and associativity of the rule with the precedence and associativity of the given symbol.
Semantic actions are arbitrary Caml expressions, that are evaluated to produce the semantic attribute attached to the defined nonterminal. The semantic actions can access the semantic attributes of the symbols in the right-hand side of the rule with the $ notation: $1 is the attribute for the first (leftmost) symbol, $2 is the attribute for the second symbol, etc.
The rules may contain the special symbol error to indicate resynchronization points, as in yacc.
Actions occurring in the middle of rules are not supported.
Error recovery is supported as follows: when the parser reaches an error state (no grammar rules can apply), it calls a function named parse_error with the string syntax error as argument. The default parse_error function does nothing and returns, thus initiating error recovery (see below). The user can define a customized parse_error function in the header section of the grammar file.
The parser also enters error recovery mode if one of the grammar actions raise the Parsing.Parse_error exception.
In error recovery mode, the parser discards states from the stack until it reaches a place where the error token can be shifted. It then discards tokens from the input until it finds three successive tokens that can be accepted, and starts processing with the first of these. If no state can be uncovered where the error token can be shifted, then the parser aborts by raising the Parsing.Parse_error exception.
Refer to documentation on yacc for more details and guidance in how to use error recovery.
The ocamlyacc command recognizes the following options:
The all-time favorite: a desk calculator. This program reads arithmetic expressions on standard input, one per line, and prints their values. Here is the grammar definition:
/* File parser.mly */ %token <int> INT %token PLUS MINUS TIMES DIV %token LPAREN RPAREN %token EOL %left PLUS MINUS /* lowest precedence */ %left TIMES DIV /* medium precedence */ %nonassoc UMINUS /* highest precedence */ %start main /* the entry point */ %type <int> main %% main: expr EOL { $1 } ; expr: INT { $1 } | LPAREN expr RPAREN { $2 } | expr PLUS expr { $1 + $3 } | expr MINUS expr { $1 - $3 } | expr TIMES expr { $1 * $3 } | expr DIV expr { $1 / $3 } | MINUS expr %prec UMINUS { - $2 } ;Here is the definition for the corresponding lexer:
(* File lexer.mll *) { open Parser (* The type token is defined in parser.mli *) exception Eof } rule token = parse [' ' '\t'] { token lexbuf } (* skip blanks *) | ['\n' ] { EOL } | ['0'-'9']+ { INT(int_of_string(Lexing.lexeme lexbuf)) } | '+' { PLUS } | '-' { MINUS } | '*' { TIMES } | '/' { DIV } | '(' { LPAREN } | ')' { RPAREN } | eof { raise Eof }Here is the main program, that combines the parser with the lexer:
(* File calc.ml *) let _ = try let lexbuf = Lexing.from_channel stdin in while true do let result = Parser.main Lexer.token lexbuf in print_int result; print_newline(); flush stdout done with Lexer.Eof -> exit 0To compile everything, execute:
ocamllex lexer.mll # generates lexer.ml ocamlyacc parser.mly # generates parser.ml and parser.mli ocamlc -c parser.mli ocamlc -c lexer.ml ocamlc -c parser.ml ocamlc -c calc.ml ocamlc -o calc lexer.cmo parser.cmo calc.cmo